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Content Knowledge | Content Knowledge is knowledge about the actual subject matter that is to be learned or taught,
including, for example, middle school science, high school history, undergraduate art history, or graduate
level astrophysics. Knowledge and the nature of inquiry differ greatly among content-areas and it is
critically important that teachers understand this about the subject matter that they teach. As Shulman
(1986) noted, this includes knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas, organizational frameworks, knowledge of evidence and proof, as well as established practices and approaches toward developing such knowledge.
In the case of art appreciation, such knowledge would include knowledge of art history, famous paintings,
sculptures, artists and their historical contexts, as well as knowledge of aesthetic and psychological theories
for evaluating art. Content knowledge is knowledge about the subject matter that is to be learned or taught, including, for example, middle school science, high school history, undergraduate art history, or graduate-level astrophysics. Knowledge and the nature of inquiry differ greatly among content areas, and it is critically important that teachers understand the disciplinary “habits of mind" appropriate to the subject matter that they teach. As Shulman (1986) noted, content includes knowledge of concepts, theories, ideas, organizational frameworks, methods of evidence and proof, as well as established practices and approaches toward developing such knowledge in a particular discipline. In the case of art appreciation, for example, such knowledge would include knowledge of art history, famous paintings, sculptures, the influence of artists’ historical and social contexts, as well as knowledge of aesthetic and psychological theories for understanding and evaluating art. Content knowledge (CK) is knowledge about the actual subject matter that
is to be learned or taught.
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Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) | Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is the intersection and interaction of pedagogy and content
knowledge. PCK is consistent with, and similar to Shulman’s (1986) conceptualization of teaching
knowledge applicable to a specific content area. It covers knowledge of the core business of teaching,
learning, curriculum, assessment and reporting, expressed, for example, in the conditions that promote
learning and the links among curriculum, assessment and pedagogy. An awareness of students’ prior
knowledge, alternative teaching strategies, common content-related misconceptions, how to forge links and
connections among different content-based ideas, and the flexibility that comes from exploring alternative
ways of looking at the same idea or problem, and more, are all expressions of pedagogical content
knowledge, and are essential to effective teaching. The idea of pedagogical content knowledge is consistent with, and similar to, Shulman’s idea of knowledge of pedagogy that is applicable to the teaching of specific content. This knowledge includes knowing what teaching approaches fit the content, and likewise, knowing how elements of the content can be arranged for better teaching. This knowledge is different from the knowledge of a disciplinary expert and also from the general pedagogical knowledge shared by teachers across disciplines. PCK is concerned with the representation and formulation of concepts, pedagogical techniques, knowledge of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn, knowledge of students’ prior knowledge, and theories of epistemology. It also involves knowledge of teaching strategies that incorporate appropriate conceptual representations in order to address learner difficulties and misconceptions and foster meaningful understanding. It also includes knowledge of what the students bring to the learning situation, knowledge that might be either facilitative or dysfunctional for the particular learning task at hand. This knowledge of students includes their strategies, prior conceptions (both ‘‘naı¨ve’’ and instructionally produced), misconceptions that they are likely to have about a particular domain, and potential misapplications of prior knowledge. Pedagogical content knowledge is the intersection and interaction of pedagogy
and content knowledge. PCK is consistent with and similar to Shulman’s
(1986) conceptualization of teaching knowledge applicable to a specific content
area. It covers essential knowledge of teaching and learning content-based
curricula, as well as assessment and reporting of that learning. An awareness of
students’ prior knowledge, alternative teaching strategies in a particular discipline,
common content-related misconceptions, how to forge links and connections
among different content-based ideas, and the flexibility that comes from
exploring alternative ways of looking at the same idea or problem, and more,
are all expressions of pedagogical content knowledge and are essential to effective
teaching.
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Pedagogical Knowledge | Pedagogical knowledge is deep knowledge about the processes and practices
of teaching and learning, encompassing educational purposes, goals, values,
strategies, and more. This is a generic form of knowledge that applies to student
learning, classroom management, instructional planning and implementation,
and student assessment. It includes knowledge about techniques or methods
used in the classroom, the nature of the learners’ needs and preferences, and
strategies for assessing student understanding. A teacher with deep pedagogical
knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquire skills in
differentiated ways, as well as how they develop habits of mind and dispositions
toward learning. As such, pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of
cognitive, social, and developmental theories of learning and how they apply to
students in the classroom. Pedagogical knowledge (PK) is deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of teaching and learning and how it encompasses, among other things, overall educational purposes, values, and aims. This is a generic form of knowledge that is involved in all issues of student learning, classroom management, lesson plan development and implementation, and student evaluation. It includes knowledge about techniques or methods to be used in the classroom; the nature of the target audience; and strategies for evaluating student understanding. A teacher with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge, acquire skills, and develop habits of mind and positive dispositions toward learning. As such, pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of cognitive, social, and developmental theories of learning and how they apply to students in their classroom. Pedagogical Knowledge is deep knowledge about the processes and practices or methods of
teaching and learning, encompassing educational purposes, values, aims, and more. This is a generic form
of knowledge that applies to student learning, classroom management, lesson plan development and
implementation, and student evaluation. It includes knowledge about techniques or methods used in the
classroom; the nature of the target audience; and strategies for evaluating student understanding. A teacher
with deep pedagogical knowledge understands how students construct knowledge and acquire skills in
differentiated ways, and how they develop habits of mind and dispositions toward learning. As such,
pedagogical knowledge requires an understanding of cognitive, social and developmental theories of
learning and how they apply to students in the classroom.
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Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) | Technological content knowledge (TCK) is knowledge about the manner in
which technology and content are reciprocally related. Although technology
constrains the kinds of representations possible, newer technologies
often afford newer and more varied representations and greater flexibility
in navigating across these representations. Teachers need to know not just
the subject matter they teach but also the manner in which the subject
matter can be changed by the application of technology. Technological content knowledge (TCK) includes an understanding of the
manner in which technology and content influence and constrain one another.
In planning for instruction, content and technology are often considered separately.
It is assumed that developing content is what content experts do (i.e.,
historians develop history and physicists develop physics), whereas technologists
develop technologies (e.g., hypertexts or overhead projectors) and technology
integration strategies. When we think of subject matter that students study
in school, we often do not think of curriculum content’s relationships to the
digital and nondigital technologies that learners and teachers use. Historically,
however, technology and knowledge have been deeply connected. New understandings
in medicine, history, archeology, and physics have emerged, in part,
from the development of new technologies that afford the representation and
manipulation of information and ideas in novel and fruitful ways. Using new
technologies (or existing technologies in new ways) can prompt fundamental
changes in the nature of the disciplines themselves. Roentgen’s discovery of xrays,
for example, changed both diagnostic processes and the nature of knowledge
in medicine. The carbon-14 dating technique similarly revolutionized
the field of archeology. Consider also how the advent of the digital computer
changed the nature of physics and mathematics work, placing a greater emphasis
upon the role of simulation in understanding phenomena. Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) includes an understanding of the manner in which
technology and content influence and constrain one another.
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Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) | Technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) is an emergent
form of knowledge that goes beyond all three components (content, pedagogy,
and technology). This knowledge is different from knowledge of a
disciplinary or technology expert and also from the general pedagogical
knowledge shared by teachers across disciplines. TPCK is the basis of good
teaching with technology and requires an understanding of the representation
of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use
technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what
makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help
redress some of the problems that students face; knowledge of students’
prior knowledge and theories of epistemology; and knowledge of how
technologies can be used to build on existing knowledge and to develop
new epistemologies or strengthen old ones. Underlying truly meaningful and highly skilled teaching with technology, we argue, is
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). TPCK is different from knowledge of all three
concepts individually and in their individual intersections. It arises instead from multiple interactions
among content, pedagogical, and technological knowledge. TPCK encompasses understanding the
representations of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that apply technologies in
constructive ways to teach content in differentiated ways according to students’ learning needs; knowledge
of what makes concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress conceptual
challenges; knowledge of students’ prior content-related understanding and epistemological assumptions;
and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing understanding to develop new
epistemologies or strengthen old ones. TPCK is a form of knowledge that expert teachers bring into play
any time they teach. Underlying truly effective and highly skilled teaching with technology, we
argue, is technological pedagogical content knowledge. TPACK is different
from knowledge of its individual component concepts and their intersections. It
arises instead from multiple interactions among content, pedagogical, technological,
and contextual knowledge. TPACK encompasses understanding and
communicating representations of concepts using technologies; pedagogical
techniques that apply technologies appropriately to teach content in differentiated
ways according to students’ learning needs; knowledge of what makes
concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress conceptual
challenges; knowledge of students’ prior content-related understanding and
epistemological assumptions, along with related technological expertise or lack
thereof; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existing
understanding to help students develop new epistemologies or strengthen old
ones. TPACK is a form of professional knowledge that technologically and
pedagogically adept, curriculum-oriented teachers use when they teach.
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Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) | Technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) is knowledge of the existence,
components, and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in
teaching and learning settings, and conversely, knowing how teaching
might change as the result of using particular technologies. This might
include an understanding that a range of tools exists for a particular task,
the ability to choose a tool based on its fitness, strategies for using the tool’s
affordances, and knowledge of pedagogical strategies and the ability to apply
those strategies for use of technologies. This includes knowledge of tools
for maintaining class records, attendance, and grading, and knowledge of
generic technology-based ideas such as WebQuests, discussion boards, and
chat rooms. Technological pedagogical knowledge is an understanding of how teaching
and learning change when particular technologies are used. This includes knowing
the pedagogical affordances and constraints of a range of technological tools
and resources as they relate to disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate
pedagogical designs and strategies. Developing TPK requires building an understanding
of the potential benefits and limitations of particular technologies
as they can be applied within particular types of learning activities, as well as
the educational contexts within which these technologically supported activities
function best. Technological pedagogical knowledge is an understanding of how teaching and learning change
when particular technologies are used. This includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and constraints
of a range of technological tools as they relate to disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate
pedagogical designs and strategies. It requires building a deeper understanding of the constraints and
affordances of particular technologies and the educational contexts within which they function best.
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Technology Knowledge | The definition of TK used in the TPACK framework is close to that of Fluency of
Information Technology (FITness), as proposed by the Committee of Information
Technology Literacy of the National Research Council (NRC, 1999). They argue that
FITness goes beyond traditional notions of computer literacy to require that persons
understand information technology broadly enough to apply it productively at work and
in their everyday lives, to recognize when information technology can assist or impede the
achievement of a goal, and to continually adapt to changes in information technology.
FITness, therefore, requires a deeper, more essential understanding and mastery of
information technology for information processing, communication, and problem solving
than does the traditional definition of computer literacy. Acquiring TK in this manner
enables a person to accomplish a variety of different tasks using information technology
and to develop different ways of accomplishing a given task. This conceptualization of TK
does not posit an “end state,” but rather sees it developmentally, as evolving over a
lifetime of generative, open-ended interaction with technology. Technology knowledge (TK) is knowledge about standard technologies, such as books, chalk and blackboard, and more advanced technologies, such as the Internet and digital video. This involves the skills required to operate particular technologies. In the case of digital technologies, this includes knowledge of operating systems and computer hardware, and the ability to use standard sets of software tools such as word processors, spreadsheets, browsers, and e-mail. TK includes knowledge of how to install and remove peripheral devices, install and remove software programs, and create and archive documents. Technology knowledge is always in a state of flux—more so than the other two “core” knowledge
domains in the TPCK framework (content and pedagogical knowledge). This makes defining and
acquiring it notoriously difficult. Technology is continually changing, and keeping up-to-date with
technological developments can become a full-time job, in and of itself. This also means that any
definition of technology knowledge is in danger of becoming outdated by the time this text has been
edited, proofread and published. There are, however, certain ways of thinking about and working with
technology that can apply to all technological tools. In that sense, our definition of TK is close to that of
Fluency of Information Technology (FITness) as proposed by Committee on Information Technology
Literacy of the National Research Council (NRC, 1999). They argue that FITness goes beyond traditional
notions of computer literacy to require that persons understand information technology broadly enough to
apply it productively at work and in their everyday lives. FITness therefore requires a deeper, more
essential understanding and mastery of information technology for information processing,
communication, and problem solving than does the traditional definition of computer literacy. This
conceptualization of TK does not posit an "end state" but rather sees it developmentally--as evolving over
a lifetime of generative, open-ended interactions with technology. Technological knowledge is always in a state of flux - more so than content
and pedagogical knowledge. This makes defining and acquiring it notoriously
difficult. Keeping up to date with technological developments can easily become
overwhelming to time-starved teachers. This also means that any definition
of technology knowledge is in danger of becoming outdated by the time
this text has been published. There are, however, ways of thinking about and
working with technology that can apply to all technological tools, regardless of
when they emerged. In that sense, our definition of TK is similar to the notion
of Fluency of Information Technology (“FITness”) as proposed by the Committee
on Information Technology Literacy of the National Research Council
(NRC, 1999). The committee argues that FITness goes beyond traditional
notions of computer literacy to require that people understand information
technology broadly enough to apply it productively at work and in their everyday
lives. FITness therefore requires a deeper, more essential understanding
and mastery of technology for information processing, communication, and
problem solving than does the traditional definition of computer literacy. Also,
this conceptualization of TK does not posit an "end state," but rather assumes
TK to be developmental, evolving over a lifetime of generative interactions with
multiple technologies.
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